U.S.A. Summary 2014
Investment basics:
Currency – US Dollar (USD)
Foreign exchange control – While there are no general restrictions on remittances of profits, dividends, interest, royalties or fees to nonresident, sanctions and embargoes apply to listed countries and entities, with restrictions on foreign payments, remittances and other types of contract and trade transactions. Regulations are prescribed by the US Treasury, and Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control maintains related lists. Extensive currency transaction reporting and recordkeeping requirement also apply.
Accounting principles/financial statements – The US Securities and Exchange Commission requires publicly traded companies to file their financial statements according to US GAAP, which is set by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (a nongovernmental entity) for public and private companies and nonprofit.
Principal business entities – Among the commonly used US (“domestic”) business entities are the following: the corporation, limited liability company, business trust partnership and limited partnership, usually created under the laws of one of the 50 states or the District of Columbia. US business also may be carried on directly by an individual (a ‘sole proprietorship’) or a US branch of a foreign business entity (e.g. a foreign corporation).
Corporate taxation:
Residence – A corporation (or partnership) is “domestic” for federal tax law purposes if it is created or organized in the US or under the laws of the US, one of the 50 states or the District of Columbia. If certain transactions are executed whereby a domestic corporation is converted into a non-US corporation (an “inversion’), the converted non-US corporation may, in certain cases, be treated as a domestic corporation for purposes of applying US tax provisions.
Basis – Domestic corporations are taxed by the federal government on worldwide income, including income, from branches, whether or not repatriated. Profits of foreign subsidiaries usually are not taxed until they are repatriated as dividends, unless they are subject to current inclusion under the “subpart F“ (see ‘Controlled foreign companies” below) or passive foreign investment company (PFIC) qualified electing fund rules. A foreign corporation is taxable on income effectively connected with the conduct of a trade or business in the US (‘effectively connected income“ or ‘ECl“) and on most non-ECI that is derived from US sources (see below under “Taxable income”). A US trade or business (e.g. a business conducted through a branch office located in the US) is relevant for this purpose conducted by the corporation, by a partnership in which it is a partner or by a trust or estate of which it is a beneficiary.
Taxable income – Domestic corporations are taxed on nearly all gross income (including, e.g. income from a business, compensation for services, dividends, interest, royalties, rents, fees and commissions, gains from dealings in property and income from a partnership), from whatever source derived, less deductions allowed for depreciation, amortization, expenses, losses and certain other terms. A foreign corporation is subject to this same tax, except that taxable income for this purpose is limited to the gross amount of its ECI, less deductions allocated thereto. Two types of income generally deemed to be ECI in all cases are net gains from sales of interests in US real property and, in the case of a foreign corporation treated as engaged in a US trade or business, gains from the sale in the US of inventory or certain other noncapital assets. A treaty may eliminate the income tax on a foreign corporations ECI, except to the extent such income is attributable to a permanent establishment (PE) in the us. Unlike a domestic corporation, a foreign corporation that earns ECI also is subject to the “branch profits tax,” equal to 30% (or a lower treaty rate) of the corporation’s earnings attributable to ECI that do not remain, or become, invested in the US trade or business. If a foreign corporation deducts interest in computing ECI and the deduction exceeds the US-source interest paid by the corporation, the corporation also must pay a tax equal to the excess times 30% (or a lower treaty rate that would be applicable to US- source interest income from a domestic subsidiary). In addition, and also subject to treaty-based reductions, the US imposes a 30% tax on the gross amount of a foreign corporation’s US- source non-ECI (e.g. dividends, interest, rents and royalties) other than certain property gains. See discussion below under “Withholding tax.”
Taxation of dividends – A dividends received deduction is available for dividends received by a corporate shareholder from a domestic corporation, at a rate of 70% (for a less than 20% shareholder), 80% (for a non- controlling shareholder owning 20% or more) or 100% (for distributions among members of the same affiliated group, provided other requirements are met).
Capital gains – Gains recognized by domestic corporations on capital assets (e.g. assets held for investment) are taxed at the same rate as ordinary income. Capital losses can be deducted against capital gains, but not against ordinary income. Relief from gain recognition is available for sales or exchanges of business assets in certain situations. A foreign corporation generally is exempt from tax on capital gains, unless the gain is from the sale of a US real property interest or is connected with the operation of a US trade or business (tax on the latter may be eliminated under a treaty in certain cases).
Losses – A corporation’s net operating losses generally may be carried back two years and forward 20 years.
Rate -A flat tax of35% applies to the taxable income of a corporation that has taxable income for the year equal to or greater than USD 18,333,333. Graduated rates, starting as low as 15%, apply to income of a corporation with total taxable income of less than USD 18,333,333. The gradations in the rate brackets that apply to a single corporation’s progressive amounts of income phase out as the corporations total taxable income rises from USD 100,000 to USD 18,333,333. For this purpose, members of a controlled group of corporations are treated similarly to a single corporation.
Surtax – No
Alternative minimum tax – Domestic and foreign corporations are liable for a 20% alternative minim um tax (AMT) to the extent that 20% of an adjusted measurement of income, computed without certain preferences exceeds the regular tax on taxable income.
Foreign tax credit – Foreign income taxes may offset dollar for dollar the US income tax on taxable income, to the extent the US tax is allocated to foreign-source taxable income and additional conditions and limitations are satisfied. Creditable foreign income taxes include taxes borne by foreign subsidiaries on profits repatriated to a US corporate shareholder (“deemed-paid taxes“).
Participation exemption – No. The deduction for dividends received, which serves a similar function in the case of a participation in a subsidiary (but not a branch or PE), generally is not available for dividends from foreign corporations (except in certain cases where the foreign corporation has ECI).
Holding company regime – No
Incentives – Incentives include numerous credits for special types of activities (including R&D), a deduction for qualifying domestic production activities and various temporary “expensing” provisions to accelerate the benefits of depreciation deductions.
Withholding tax:
Dividends – The gross amount of dividends paid by a domestic corporation to a foreign corporation generally is subject to a 30% withholding tax, unless the rate is reduced under a tax treaty or the income is ECI. Dividends paid by a narrow class of “grandfathered” 80/20 companies (a domestic corporation that derives at least 80% of its income for the three-year testing period from active foreign business (its own or the subsidiaries)) existing before 2011 are eligible for relief from gross-basis tax in the hands of foreign corporations. Dividends received by a foreign corporation from another foreign corporation out of the latter’s earnings attributable to ECI are not subject to US withholding tax; the branch profits tax (see above under “Taxable income”) serves as a substitute for shareholder-level taxation of such earnings.
Interest – The gross amount of interest received by a foreign corporation from US sources generally is subject to a 30% withholding tax, unless the rate is reduced under a tax treaty or a statutory exemption applies. interest that is ECI and certain interest on portfolio debt obligations, on short-term obligations, on bank deposits, on bonds issued by state or local governments and on debts of grandfathered 80/20 companies generally may be exempt from withholding tax.
Royalties – Royalties received by a foreign corporation for the use of property in the US are subject to a 30% withholding tax unless the rate is reduced under a tax treaty or the income is ECI.
Technical service fees – There is generally only a tax on fees for personal services, including technical services, if the services are performed within the US. If performed in the US, such fees typically would be ECI.
Branch remittance tax – The US imposes a branch profits tax, as discussed under the “Taxable income” section of ‘Corporate taxation.“
Other – Any other income, gain or profit characterized as “fixed or determinable, annual or periodic“ (FDAP) is subject to a 30% withholding tax, unless the rate is reduced under a tax treaty or the income is ECI. A non final tax also must be withheld on proceeds from the disposition of US real property interests (10%) and by partnerships on their ECI allocable to foreign corporate partners (35%).
Other taxes on corporations:
Capital duty – No
Payroll tax – The employer must withhold federal income tax from employee wages and must remit the tax to the government. The employer also must pay federal and state unemployment tax and, as noted below, social security taxes. The federal unemployment insurance rate is 6 on the first USD 7,000 of each employees wages. State unemployment insurance, mandatory in all 50 states and the District of Columbia, varies widely. The employer receives a credit, up to a maximum of 5.4% (5.1% for states classified as “credit reduction states“ that have outstanding FUTA loans), against the federal tax for amounts paid to state unemployment insurance funds.
Real property tax – Tax generally is imposed by the local governments at various rates.
Social security – Social security taxes are comprised of old age, survivors and disability insurance (OASDI), and “hospital insurance“ (also known as ‘Medicare”). The taxes generally are borne equally by the employer and the employee, with the employer responsible for remitting each employee’s portion to the federal government The OASDI tax is imposed on the first USD 117,000 of wages, at the combined rate of 12.4%. The Medicare tax is imposed on total wages, at the combined rate of 2.9% (plus an additional 0.9% for wages above a certain threshold). The employer’s portion of social security taxes is deductible for income tax purposes. Persons who are self-employed are subject to a separate tax that is comparable to the social security tax paid by employers. The US has totalization agreements in force with over 20 countries to eliminate dual social security taxation and to help ensure benefit protection for employees.
Stamp duty – Documentary stamp taxes may be imposed at the state level. ‘Stamp’ taxes also may be imposed on such items as alcohol and tobacco.
Transfer tax – Transfer taxes may be imposed at the state level.
Other – The federal government imposes a variety of excise taxes, in addition to the social security taxes on wages described above. In addition, the 50 states and the District of Columbia, as well as local governments, impose various income, franchise, license, stamp, estate, property and other taxes.
Anti-avoidance rules:
Transfer pricing – The tax authorities may adjust income in related party transactions that are not at arm‘s length. Detailed regulations prescribe the scope, specific methodologies and principles. Documentation is required. Advance pricing agreements, both bilateral and unilateral, may be negotiated.
Thin capitalization – The ‘earnings stripping” rules restrict the ability of US (and certain foreign) companies to claim an interest deduction on debt owed to, or guaranteed by, certain non-US related persons (and other related persons exempt from US tax). The rules generally apply where the debt-to-equity ratio of the payer exceeds 1.5 to one and the payer‘s ‘net interest expense” exceeds 50% of its “adjusted taxable income” for the year. Disallowed interest that is not currently deductible may be carried forward and deducted in future years if certain conditions are satisfied.
Controlled foreign companies – Certain types of income of controlled foreign corporations (CFCs) are included currently in the taxable income of ‘US shareholders‘ (US persons that own at least 10% ofthe foreign corporations voting stock). A CFC is a foreign corporation, more than 50% (by vote or value) of whose stock is owned (directly, indirectly or by attribution) by “US shareholders.”
Other -The US has numerous structure specific regimes, including the anti-inversion and PFIC provision
Disclosure requirements – Corporations with USD 10 million or more in assets are required to file Schedule UTP, disclosing information about tax positions treated as “uncertain” for financial statement purposes. (The total asset threshold triggering the filing requirement was USD 50 million for the 2012 and 2013 tax years.) Individuals are required to file a statement with their income tax returns to report interests in specified foreign financial assets if the aggregate value of those assets exceeds certain thresholds. Reporting thresholds vary based on whether a filer files a joint tax return or resides abroad, and are higher for married couples and taxpayers who qualify for foreign residency. For example, unmarried taxpayers living in the US have a filing requirement if the total value of specified foreign financial assets is more than USD 50,000 on the last day of the tax year, or more than USD 75,000 at any time during the tax year. Applicable assets include financial accounts, foreign stock and securities, interests in foreign entities and other financial instruments and contracts. Failure to disclose for any taxable year would subject the individual to a USD 10,000 penalty (with the continuation penalty capped at USD 50,000) and a 40% penalty on an understatement of tax attributable to nondisclosed assets. Beginning in 2014, new rules (FATCA) designed to prevent US persons from evading US tax through foreign accounts and entities are scheduled to be enforced by the imposition of a 30% withholding fix on US- source income that is not otherwise subject to withholding tax, and on the proceeds of post-2016 dispositions of instruments giving rise to US-source dividends or interest, in situations where insufficient information is provided, or insufficient diligence is performed, by foreign financial institutions (FFIs) or nonfinancial foreign entities (NFFEs) with respect to whether the ultimate owners of accounts or foreign entities are US persons. These FATCA rules are in addition to other rules requiring that details of transactions, holdings and tax positions be disclosed on US tax returns, or by US payers and withholding agents, depending on the nature and size of the transaction.
Administration and compliance:
Tax year – Corporations may adopt as their tax year a fiscal year consisting of 12 months and ending on the last day of any month (except in the case of a 52/53-week year). Special rules apply in determining the permitted or required taxable year of certain entities (e.g. partnerships and CFCs).
Consolidated returns – A group of domestic affiliated corporations may file a consolidated tax return if certain requirements are met, most particularly that the parent company must own directly 80% or more of the stock of at least one subsidiary in the group, and each subsidiary in the group must be at least 80%»owned directly by the parent and/or other group subsidiaries
Filing requirements – In general, a US corporation‘s tax return must be filed by the 15th day of the third month following the end of its taxable year. Related tax must be paid on or before the due date of the return. Extensions are available. Other filings may be necessary on a quarterly or other basis. Quarterly estimated tax payments generally are required.
Penalties – US tax rules include a comprehensive set of penalty and interest provisions for failure to pay and failure to file, with relevant amounts generally determined based on the specific form or tax code section at issue.
Rulings – Taxpayers may request a private letter ruling, to be issued relative to a specific taxpayer and specific transaction or series of events. Prefiling agreements also are available.
Personal taxation:
Basis – All US citizens and residents, including resident aliens and citizens who reside outside the US, pay federal tax on their worldwide income, with credits for foreign income taxes (subject to certain limitations). Nonresident aliens are taxed only on ECI and US-source non-ECI. Special taxing rules may apply to former US citizens and long term residents upon or alter expatriation. The 50 states and the District of Columbia also collect income tax from nonresidents and individuals who reside in their territory.
Residence – Aliens who have entered the US as permanent residents and who have not officially surrendered or lost the light to permanent US residence are taxed as US residents. Also taxed as residents are individuals who meet a “substantial presence test”, which requires, subject to further considerations, either physical presence in the US for 183 days or more during a calendar year, or presence of at least 31 days during a calendar year and a cumulative presence of1B3 days or more based on a weighted number of days during the calendar year (taken at whole value) and the two immediately preceding calendar years (taken at one third value for the first preceding calendar year and at one-sixth for the second).
Filing status – The categories for individuals filing are single, married filing jointly, married filing separately, head of household or qualifying widow(er).
Taxable income – Individuals generally must include nearly all gross income from whatever source derived in their taxable income (including their compensation for services (including all forms of remuneration and allowances and the value of other perquisites that are not specifically exempted), dividends, interest, royalties, rents, fees and commissions, gains from dealings in property and income from a partnership). Non- resident aliens exclude non-ECI in computing taxable income; however, they are subject to US tax on the gross amounts of such income, generally collected on receipt via withholding, if the income is from US sources and not from the sale or exchange of property.
Capital gains – The excess of net long-term capital gains (generally, gains from investments held for more than 12 months) over net short term capital losses (net capital gains) generally is taxed at a maximum rate of 20% (before 2013, 15% generally was the maximum rate). The net capital gains rate also is applicable to dividends received from domestic corporations generally and from certain foreign corporations.
Deductions and allowances – Individual taxpayers are entitled to a standard deduction from gross income in calculating taxable income, or they may “itemize” deductions. Numerous credits also are available. Tax benefits for high income taxpayers are limited (there is a phase-out of itemized deductions and a personal exemption phase-out for single taxpayers with income above USD 250,000 (USD 300,000 for married taxpayers and USD 275,000 for heads of households).
Rates – Rates are progressive up to 39.6% (before 2013, the maximum rate was 35%). In addition to the regular income tax, individuals may be subject to the alternative minimum tax (AMT), which is triggered where an individuals tentative AMT liability exceeds that individuals regular income tax liability. The AMT is imposed at a rate of 26% on the taxable excess (AMT income minus an ‘exemption amount”) up to specified levels, and at a rate of 28% on the taxable excess above these levels. The exemption amounts for the individual AMT for2013 were USD 80,000 for married taxpayers tiling jointly and USD 51,900 for unmarried taxpayers) and will be automatically indexed for inflation thereafter.
Other taxes on individuals:
Capital duty – No
Stamp duty – The federal government does not levy a stamp tax; states may impose the levy on various instruments.
Capital acquisitions tax – No
Real property tax – Tax generally is imposed by the local governments at various rates.
Inheritance/estate tax – For US citizens and residents, the estate tax is imposed, generally based on the assets of the deceased in excess of USD 5,340,000 (for 2014), and the heirs generality are not subject to income tax on the appreciation of the assets in the hands of the decedent. A gift tax is imposed on gift made during a persons life. The top rate for estate and gift taxes is 40% (increased from 35% as from 1 January 2013). For nonresident noncitizens, estate taxes are imposed only on property situated in the US in excess of USD 60,000. This threshold may be increased by treaty. Gift taxes are imposed on any transfer in excess of a USD 13,000 annual exclusion. The US has estate and gift tax treaties in force with over a dozen countries. As part of its overall transfer tax system, the US imposes a generation-skipping tax (GST) on certain transfers. The states also impose various estate or inheritance taxes.
Net wealth/net worth tax – No
Social security – See under “Corporate taxation.” in addition, as from tax years beginning after 31 December 2012, individuals must pay a Medicare contribution of 3.8% of net investment income over a threshold amount (U SD 250,000 if married filing jointly or a qualifying widow(er), USD 125,000 if married filing separately and USD 200,000 in any other case).
Administration and compliance:
Tax year – The tax year is the calendar year, unless a fiscal year is elected. Any fiscal year must end on the last day of a calendar month.
Filing and payment – Tax is deducted at source from employment income. Individual self-assessment tax returns are due by the 15th day of the fourth month following the end of the tax year (or the sixth month, in the case of certain non-resident aliens). An extension of six months is granted if the taxpayer makes an election before the due date for the return and pays the estimated final tax due.
Penalties – US tax rules include a comprehensive set of penalty and interest provisions for failure to pay and failure to file, with relevant amounts generally determined based on the specific form or code section at issue. See also “Disclosure” under “Anti-avoidance measures.“
State sales tax:
Taxable transactions – The US does not levy a federal value added tax or sales tax. Individual states levy sales tax at various rates, subject to state-set requirements.
Rates – N/A
Registration – N/A
Filing and payment – N/A
Source of tax law: For federal taxes, these are the US Internal Revenue Code and tax treaties, US Treasury Regulations, federal court decisions and US Internal Revenue Service administrative guidance.
Tax treaties: Comprehensive income tax treaties are in force with over 60 countries.
Tax authorities: The Internal Revenue Service, a part of the US Department of the Treasury, administers the taxes imposed by federal law.
International organizations: WTO, OECD